<b>Brittany (~500-1532)<b>

Brittany, known in French as Bretagne, is a Celtic country with ancient roots. When the Franks began their migration into Gaul in the 4th century, the Celts were slowly losing out against this Germanic tribe. Driven back into Normandy and Brittany, they were awaiting their deathblow when luck gave them a helping hand. On the isles of Great Britain a similar event was happening: the Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes were conquering the lands of the Celts. As a result, large amounts of refugees fled to Wales and Brittany, revitalising these areas and ensuring their survival for generations to come. Brittany became a safe haven for Celts of many regions. From 851 on Bretons could rest easier in their beds: at the battle of Jengland the Breton army of King Erispo defeated the French army of King Charles the Bald, who consequently recognised their independence. 

When Henry II created the Angevin state, Brittany was part of his dominions. The Bretons, however, were unhappy to be so, much like the Welsh, and joined the rebellion of 1173-74. Henry's own son, Geoffrey, second Breton duke of that name, fought against his father to prevent his duchy from becoming an English fief. Before he died, he proclaimed what is known as "Geoffrey's Assise", which forbade the subdivision of fiefs, which was common practice in Celtic lands (and continued in Wales until long after they were conquered). Geoffrey's son, Arthur, continued his father's anti-English policy. By now it was clear that Brittany could no longer be counted among England's vassals, and it fell more closely under French influence.

King Philippe II Augustus also tried his hand at Breton politics, and appointed Pierre Mauclerc as the tutor of his son, the under age Jehan, Duke of Brittany. However, Mauclerc became a staunch supporter of Breton independence - the ermine on the Breton coat of arms was introduced by him. During this period it is sometimes difficult to see just how independent Brittany was. Very often she had no choice but to obey the demands of any French King. However, unlike the Welsh, the Bretons were prepared to do this to maintain their own lords, laws, and customs.

At the start of the Hundred Years War, Brittany was involved in a bloody civil war (1341-1364). On the one side was Jean de Montfort, half brother of the last duke, Jean III, supported by the English; on the other, Charles de Blois, who had married the niece of Jean III. He was supported by the French. The war included many epic battles and events, and the tides turned regularly, for example when Jean de Montfort died in 1345 or when Charles de Blois was captured in 1347. However, after the battle of Auray (1364), the Montforts were clearly the victors, and Jeanne de Penthivre and Charles de Blois abdicated their claim in favour of Duke Jean IV. This conflict caused the introduction of several new laws, including a modified version of the Salic law (meaning that no rights can be inherited through a woman) and, in 1352, the establishment of the tats de Bretagne (Estates of Brittany), the Duchy's parliament.

Brittany's future, however, was still not safe. In 1378 King Charles V of France sought to conquer the Duchy. Duke Jean IV resisted, and in the second treaty of Gurande (1381) Breton neutrality in the Anglo-French conflict was guarantueed; however, the Duke continued to swear hommage to the King. During the Welsh revolt of Owain Glyndwr Breton warships helped the Welsh, though their help was more akin to piracy than anything else.

Eventually, in 1488, the curtains seemed to fall. King Charles VIII sought to stabilise and centralise his realm. Because the Bretons had always been unruly and in the last century frequently sided with the independent Burgundians, Charles felt he needed to end the possible threat. His army, backed up with 5 000 mercenaries, defeated the Bretons under Franois II and forced him to sign a treaty allowing the King of France to pick a husband for the Duke's daughter. The choice wasn't particularly hard for the French, and she was married to King Louis XII of France. In 1532, under King Franois I, Brittany was officially incorporated into the Kingdom of France.
